Scars Beneath the Surface: The Impacts of Residential schooling on Indigenous People’s Childhood and Education In British Columbia: 1940-1990

 

 

Introduction/Thesis

When reflecting on past experiences, many different feelings can arise in an individual. A person’s or peoples background and history shape and determine who they become. Everyone has a life story and although no ones are the same there can be similarities or shared experiences among a group of people. For example, the Holocaust was a genocide during World War II in which Nazi Germany systematically killed approximately six million European Jews between 1941 and 1945.[1] This was an extremely influential event that European Jews had suffered. We see the damages of past events that have taken place on people individually and as a group. Another area where the impacts of a significant past event are apparent lies within the lives of Indigenous people; more specifically those who had been apart of the Residential School System. Residential schools had a major influence on Indigenous People from the time they were first developed up until the mid-1990s. Indigenous people continue to suffer the consequences from their experiences at residential schools and many have shared their stories about their time spent within them. By 1923 there were 16 active residential schools within British Columbia.[2] Elizabeth Furniss states that “Residential schools continued to operate through the first half of the 1990’s”.[3] Residential schools within British Columbia continued to run until a decline in the 1950s.[4] The last residential school to close was in 1996. [5] Residential schools within British Columbia isolated and assimilated Indigenous children causing long term effects for the duration of their lives. When examining the 1940’s- 1990’s, in British Columbia, there are many circumstances surrounding residential schools that contribute to the impacts on Indigenous people. Psychological, environmental, developmental, over-all health and well being are areas in which Indigenous people suffered due to their time spent and education received at residential school. The history of residential schools provides insight into the harsh reality and obstacles Indigenous people were forced to face. At residential schools’ children were being forced to live a life that they were unfamiliar with while being physically, mentally and emotionally mistreated. Residential schools impacted the lives of Indigenous people greatly and in many ways. The ways in which they were affected will be revealed throughout stories of survivors, documentation that supports how they were impacted and evidence to support the argument that residential schools annihilated and governed the lives of Indigenous people’s childhood and education.

Euro-Canadian and Indigenous Relations

Prior to residential schools, the relationship between White European Settlers and Indigenous people was based mostly off trade.  James Reynolds states, “Native people did not immigrate to Canada as individuals or families who expected to be assimilated to Canada … The Native peoples … were already here: they have been forced to submit to the laws and institutions of the dominant White society.” Celia Haig-Brown describes first encounters with the White European settler saying, “initially the encounters were limited to exchanges with an itinerant fur trader who had little effect on the lifestyle of the people who met him. Trade goods which enhanced or made easier the work of the Native person were desirable”.[6] By Haig-Brown describing the relationship between settlers and Indigenous people, it brings awareness to that fact that encounters between the white Euro-Canadian settler and Indigenous people didn’t always steer negatively. It wasn’t until White European settlers had the demand for control that their relationship with Indigenous people was influenced. Haig-Brown also draws upon the government, missionaries, and The Secwepemc’s roles and opinions of residential schools. The government was in control of Indigenous people and were the ones to first carry out the idea that Indigenous people needed to conform to the ways of white European settlers. Haig-Brown writes the government wanted to “
 raise them [the Indians] to the level of the whites.”[7] Elizabeth Furniss also refers that Roman Catholic Missionaries and the Canadian government’s main goal through residential schooling, which was that Indigenous people would abandon their culture and conform to the civilized ways of Euro-Canadian Society.[8] Missionaries supported the government in ensuring the education at residential schools was in efforts to abolish Indigenous culture. These missionaries main objective was to “control the lives of Native people spiritually and in terms of lifestyle”[9] according to Haig-Brown. She supports this further by saying, “despite its good intentions, this desire for control over Native people partially through segregation and more directly through the destruction of their traditional lifestyle reveals the invasive nature of the Oblates’ work.”[10] Furniss states that “with Native people living as whites, wearing European dress, speaking the English language, and working as farmers or laborers within the colonial economy, the “Indian Problem,” government and church agents believed would no longer exist.”[11] Missionaries such as the Oblates were the ones to put into action the requests of the government and oversaw the schools themselves. Haig-Brown and Furniss establish the relationship between Indigenous people and other authorities and sets the tone for the discrimination and issues that came with residential schools. Haig-Brown Identifies that “the startling differences between Shuswap education and that of the residential schools are numerous.”[12] This leads to the perception that there is more to learn about the contrast between Indigenous people and residential schools.  Prior to the Residential School System, Indigenous children attended day schools. The ineffectiveness of day schools leads to the development of the residential school system in the late 1970s.[13] The residential schools were a solution to the poor attendance of Indigenous children at day schools, this being because children would be removed from their homes and communities for unknown extensive periods of time.[14] Furniss claims, “with this shift to residential schooling, the relationship between church and state now took a more formal cast: Indian education officially became a joint venture of church and state.”[15]

 

The Development of Residential Schools and the Role Government, Religious Parties, and Indigenous People Within Them

 

 

Furniss declares, “By 1894 the federal government was funding forty-five residential schools in Canada, eleven of which were in British Columbia.”[16] Education was put in the hands of the church this being because church schools were already in use.[17]The church and state worked in harmony to structure precise and economically beneficial education system for Indigenous children. Missionaries were agents of the government.[18] Therefore, their role within residential schools was based on the governments need for colonization.[19] The government provided the finances for residential schools to be administered and the missionaries and churches oversaw and implemented the schools themselves. Indigenous children were being segregated into dominant society through the works of religion and Euro-Canadian cultural ways.[20]  Furniss claims, “Through the first half of the century Indian education continued to consist of a mixture of academic, industrial and moral training.”[21]. There was a realization that the assimilation program was not working the way in which the government wanted it too, and Indigenous students were not integrating into the dominant society.[22] After World War 2 Canadian Indigenous leaders were placing pressure on the federal government with concerns pertaining to poverty, civil rights, and racial equality.[23] This led to the beginning steps towards reform and the revision of the Indian Act in 1951.[24] In 1951 the government sought to integrate indigenous children into mainstream schools with a series of amendments to the Indian Act.[25] By 1954 all teachers were in residential schools were employees of the federal government. [26] This meant less involvement from religious denominations.[27] Education from Indigenous people was everchanging however, Canadian government policies were still greatly influencing indigenous education and schools. “During the early 1970s, schooling became the “battleground” for First Nations self-government concerns.”[28] This led to the end of federal control of Indigenous schooling by the National Indian Brotherhood of Canada in 1972. [29] The 1970s was a time of great change in Indigenous schooling. The government and religious parties’ efforts to assimilate, segregate or integrate had failed in their attempt to diminish the world of Indigenous people and their ways of life.[30] Residential schools were being phased out and Indigenous children were being integrated into the public school system. In the late 1980s, the media drew attention towards sexual abuse of Indigenous children from members of the churches. These incidents occurred at the residential schools where members served as teachers and supervisors.[31]

 

The Reality of Residential School Life

 

“Aboriginal populations were relocated to Indian reserves, children were taken from their families and placed in residential schools, and some Aboriginal cultural practices were banned.”[32] Children lives at the residential schools were lonely, harsh and far from a pleasant experience. The video “Eyes of the children” demonstrates the daily life of residential schools. It shows children in classrooms and taking part in various activities at the Kamloops Residential School.[33] Although the video documents the life of children at residential school it does not show the realities of what took place behind the scenes. Many Indigenous people have spoken out about the truths of what happened in residential schools. A Report to the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples lists many physical, psychological and emotional cases of abuse. Listed are only a few examples of abuse reported. Sexual abuse from men and women in authority on boys and girls (forced sexual intercourse, arranging abortions, oral-genital or masturbatory contact), physical abuse and punishment (burning children, insertion of needles in tongues and other regions of children’s bodies, severe beating vomit, leading to unconsciousness, blood or injuries, electric shock forcing children to eat their vomit, unprotected exposure to harsh environmental elements, shaving children’s heads), beating children naked in front of peers, verbal abuse, racism, withholding gifts and letters, locking children away, forced labour, starvation, malnutrition, and much more.[34] Children often were not literate when leaving schools. A large portion of their time was spent on physical labor.[35] It is apparent that education was not recognized to be learning to read or write within the residential schools as it would be in a regular school system. Indigenous children were leaving residential schools with the inability to further their education or obtain a decent job. Moreover, they were leaving with terrible memories and encounters ingrained in themselves. People were beginning to express how residential school impacted them and the consequences that had followed.[36]

 

Impacts and Stories of Residential School

Some consequences that have been identified in Indigenous residential school survivors are “high rates of alcoholism, suicide, and sexual abuse, the loss of language and culture, low self-esteem and pride, the breakdown of families, the loss of parenting skills, dependency on others, and loss of initiative.”[37] Indigenous people had to face many harsh and terrible experiences at residential school and they were not something that would just be forgotten. Ron Ignace talks about his experience as a child before, during and after residential school. He describes his life and community prior to residential school. He says, “the life I had before I went to residential school was a very simple life, but one that was a good life.”[38] Ignace describes the importance and significance of elders, his culture and language. When brought to the school he mentions that he screamed when his family left him, and the priests grabbed him. Ignace says, “it’s called a primal scream. That is a “cry that a person gives, a cry of distress from the center of the soul.”[39] Ignace talks about the residential school in Kamloops. He states the forms of abuse and punishment and the many fights between kids as well. Ignace talks about being a bed wetter and that the way they punished bedwetters was through means of embarrassment. He said they would have to wash their sheets and then walk down the girls’ side.[40] He also addresses being whipped often.[41] Although Ignace experienced awful things throughout his school experience he used that anger and frustration as fuel towards obtaining a master’s degree.[42] Those who attended residential school had to overcome many challenges; some not making it past childhood. Children often died because of residential school. Running away, suicide and diseases were all causes of lives lost. Furniss addresses the truth about runaways and suicide. One story given is of a group of boys who ate poison berries at the Williams Lake Residential school.[43] One boy died because of this.[44] Furniss expresses that, “It had been no accident. Instead, it had been a suicide pact brought on by the excessive beatings that the boys were suffering.”[45] Those who did survive suffered from various kinds of psychological and emotional outcomes. Figure 1, is a table presented by Rosemary Barnes and Nina Josefowitz from the article “Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Persistent Impacts on Aboriginal Students’ Psychological Development and Functioning”. This table is a very useful visual representation of how Indian Residential Schools (IRS) impacted the lives of its students. “Former students have varied memories of IRS experiences, but many reported neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse as well as intense loneliness and distress while attending an IRS and significant difficulties after leaving.”[46] States, Barnes, and Josefowitz. The model (Figure 1.) demonstrates various aspects of psychological impacts on Residential school attendees these include ”the vulnerability of IRS students persistent mental health disorders but also to (b) complex traumatic reactions arising from impaired relational attachment and developmental maturation, to (c) negative cascades of events, and to (d) social marginalization resulting from both Canadian societal racism and inability to develop or retain Aboriginal languages and cultures”[47] according to Barnes and Josefowitz. Barnes and Josefowitz highlight that these psychological encounters are contributors to many obstacles Indigenous people are exposed too, “such as poorer educational achievement, higher rates of substance abuse, higher levels of poverty, higher rates of imprisonment, and poorer physical health.”[48]

Figure 1.  Barnes, R., & Josefowitz, N. (2018, July 5). Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Persistent Impacts on Aboriginal Students’ Psychological Development and Functioning. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne. Advance online publication.

 

Raymond Mason, 62 years old, describes actions of sexual abuse at residential school saying,

“I remember when we had a shower we you know you only have to show me how to shower and clean I wash myself how to wash my private and you know the private parts of your body you don’t have to show a kid once or twice at the most but not every day you know and have the supervisor come in there and basically take advantage of you.”[49] 

Cariboo Tribal Council indicates that “both physically painful punishment and psychologically injurious tactics were employed; both the mind and the body were the subject of attack in residential school.”[50] Children suffered severely from poor nutrition and starvation. Haig-Brown quotes a residential school survivor names Sophie saying,

“They used to put potatoes, turnips, carrots, chunks of meat, cabbage, everything all in one pot and boil the hell out of it. By the times they were ready to serve it, you couldn’t even see a little chunk of potato; it was all like a chowder. And we had that for lunch everyday
”[51]

There were some gender differences regarding impacts and coping mechanisms. Fathers who attended residential schools had more personal problems. Fathers tended to lean towards harsher physical punishment, and struggle at displaying affection and attention.[52] Residential school effects more than just those who were students; it is a generational impaction.[53]  The Cariboo Council points out differences between residential school students and non-residential school students. Interestingly when it came to a matter of Indigenous culture and identify those who attended residential school reported a more significant positive influence of their feelings about Indigenous culture and identity. Therefore, “residential school may have created a backlash of people re-asserting their Native identity”[54] states the Cariboo Tribal Council. The aftermath of residential schools led to an inability to express feelings, feelings of inferiority, apathy and an unwillingness to work, values confusion and culture shock, anti-religion attitudes, impacts of children whose parents attended residential schools and changes in the role of elders within Indigenous individuals who attended residential school.[55]

 

Connections and Conclusion

Children were targeted in respects to residential school. Age was a category of analysis pertaining to residential schools. To achieve colonization, the government believed that targeting Indigenous children was the most effective way to ensure diminishing Indigenous ways of life. Children were to attend residential schools and there be forced to conform to the ideal expectations of dominant Euro-Canadian society. “To be a child is to live in a world which is not of ones’ own making.”[56] Children’s lives were not seen to be there own within residential schools and they were to abandon any form of Indigenous culture and identity. “Each and every child had a world which compromised his spiritual, mental, emotional and physical existence before attending residential school.”[57] Residential schools were created as a form of social control. Efforts from both government officials and religious contributors were out of the need of having social control of Indigenous communities. They could not remove Indigenous people from Canada, so they went to severe lengths to remove Indigenous culture and ways of life, and residential school was one of the ways they tried to execute this. Indigenous education changed drastically from the time of 1940 to 1990 and the Cariboo Tribal Council believes that “serious consideration should be given to the social control function of the education experienced by First Nations people from the four bands, regardless of whether they attended residential or non-residential school.”[58] gender, age, race, and religion are categories that need to be assessed when looking at the impacts of residential school on Indigenous people. In a historical context, residential schools were entrenched to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. Talks about her experience at residential schools saying, “They gave you clothes with numbers. You were now a number. And the number I remember is 33. Every time they called 33 that was me! I had to go, go forward.”[59] This demonstrates how Indigenous children were viewed in residential school. They were a number and not a person in the eyes of the government and religious authorities. Residential schools’ education was very formal and not in any way progressive for Indigenous students. The Assembly of First Nations declares, “The term “residential school” appears to have come into formal use during the 1920s.”[60] Despite changes in what residential schools were referred to as they were all “total institutions”.[61] Residential schools during the time of 1940-1990 were still greatly influencing the lives of many Indigenous people and although there were changes in education and residential schools were fading out the long-term negative impacts had already caused severe damage among residential school survivors. The Assembly of First Nations summarizes “From the voices of those who experienced residential schools, four common themes persist: feeling lost, being silenced, coping, and being alone.”[62] Based on multiple documents and evidence stating the intense effects of residential school on Indigenous people it did more destruction than good to the lives of those who survived. The term “holocaust” is not only referred to when describing past events between German and Jews. It has also been used “to describe the Residential school era of Indian-white relations”[63], concludes Grant. It is important to understand that actions of cultural genocide were implicated with the development of residential schools, and although they were unsuccessful in terminating Indigenous culture and identity they did negatively impacts the lives of many Indigenous people and inflict a numerous amount of distress, grief, pain, and torment in residential school survivors. There is so much that we as Canadians can reflect on and take from such a tragic event and even then, it would not replace the lives that were affected and taken from such a monstrous education system. I hope that when done reading this paper you have learned the severity of what Indigenous people had to endure and show respect and honor to those who have been exposed to the corrupt outcomes of residential schools.

 

[1] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Introduction to the Holocaust.” Holocaust

Encyclopedia.

[2]Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 29.

[3] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 29.

[4] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 29.

[5] J.R Miller. “Residential Schools in Canada”.  In The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada.

Article published October 10, 2012; last modified September 21, 2018.

 

[6] Celia Haig-Brown. 2006. Resistance and Renewal : Surviving the Indian Residential School.

Vancouver, BC : Arsenal Pulp Press, 2006, c1988. Pg. 27.

[7] Celia Haig-Brown. 2006. Resistance and Renewal : Surviving the Indian Residential School.

Vancouver, BC : Arsenal Pulp Press, 2006, c1988. Pg. 29.

[8] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 13.

[9] Celia Haig-Brown. 2006. Resistance and Renewal : Surviving the Indian Residential School.

Vancouver, BC : Arsenal Pulp Press, 2006, c1988. Pg. 34.

[10] Ibid., pg. 35.

[11] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 13.

[12] Celia Haig-Brown. 2006. Resistance and Renewal : Surviving the Indian Residential School.

Vancouver, BC : Arsenal Pulp Press, 2006, c1988. Pg. 38.

[13] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 25.

[14] Agnes Grant. No End of Grief: Indian Residential Schools in Canada. Winnipeg : Pemmican  Pub., 1996., 1996. Pg. 25.

[15]Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 26.

[16] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 27.

[17] Agnes Grant. No End of Grief: Indian Residential Schools in Canada. Winnipeg : Pemmican  Pub., 1996., 1996. Pg. 98.

[18] Agnes Grant. No End of Grief: Indian Residential Schools in Canada. Winnipeg : Pemmican  Pub., 1996., 1996. Pg. 98.

[19] Ibid., pg. 98.

[20] Agnes Grant. No End of Grief: Indian Residential Schools in Canada. Winnipeg : Pemmican  Pub., 1996., 1996. Pg. 99.

[21] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 29.

[22] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 30.

[23] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 30.

[24] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 30.

[25] Breaking the Silence: An Interpretive Study of Residential School Impact and Healing as

Illustrated by the Stories of First Nation Individuals. 1994. Assembly of First Nations. Pg. 18.

[26] Ibid., pg. 18

[27] Ibid., pg. 18.

[28] Ibid., pg. 18.

[29] Ibid., pg. 18.

[30]  Ibid., pg. 19.

[31] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 30.

[32]  Reynolds, James I. 2018. Aboriginal Peoples and the Law : A Critical Introduction. Vancouver,

BC: Purich Books. Pg. 31.

[33] CBC Digital Archives. “’The Eyes of Children’- life at residential school.” December 25, 1962.

29:19.

[34] Roland D. Chrisjohn, Maraun Michael, and Sherri L. Young. The Circle Game : Shadows

and Substance in the Indian Residential School Experience in Canada. Theytus Books, 1997. 19-21.

[35] Deena Rymhs. 2003. “A Residential School Memoir: Basil Johnston’s ‘Indian School

Days.’” Canadian Literature, no. 178 (September): 58–70. pg 66.

[36] Deena Rymhs. 2003. “A Residential School Memoir: Basil Johnston’s ‘Indian School

Days.’” Canadian Literature, no. 178 (September): 58–70. pg 66.

[37] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 31.

[38] Agnes S Jack. 2006. Behind Closed Doors : Stories from the Kamloops Indian Residential School. Kamloops, B.C. : Secwepemc Cultural Education Society, c2006. Pg. 3

[39] Ibid., pg. 5.

[40] Ibid., pg. 7.

[41] Ibid., pg. 8.

[42] Ibid., pg. 9.

[43] Elizabeth Furniss. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. Pg. 90.

[44]Ibid., pg. 90.

[45]Ibid., pg. 90.

[46] Rosemary Barnes & Nina Josefowitz. (2018, July 5). Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Persistent Impacts on Aboriginal Students’ Psychological Development and Functioning. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne. Advance online publication. Pg. 9.

[47] Ibid., pg. 8.

[48] Ibid., pg. 8.

[49] CBC News: The National. “Stolen Children | Residential School survivors speak out.” Youtube

video, 18:35. June 2, 2015.

[50] Impact of the Residential School. Williams Lake, B.C. : Cariboo Tribal Council, c1991., 1993. Pg. 12.

[51]Celia Haig-Brown. 2006. Resistance and Renewal : Surviving the Indian Residential School.

Vancouver, BC : Arsenal Pulp Press, 2006, c1988. Pg. 69.

[52] Impact of the Residential School. Williams Lake, B.C. : Cariboo Tribal Council, c1991., 1993. Pg. 15.

[53] Impact of the Residential School. Williams Lake, B.C. : Cariboo Tribal Council, c1991., 1993. Pg. 15.

[54] Impact of the Residential School. Williams Lake, B.C. : Cariboo Tribal Council, c1991., 1993. Pg. 15.

[55] Agnes Grant. No End of Grief: Indian Residential Schools in Canada. Winnipeg: Pemmican

Pub., 1996., 1996. chapter XII.

[56] Breaking the Silence: An Interpretive Study of Residential School Impact and Healing as

Illustrated by the Stories of First Nation Individuals. 1994. Assembly of First Nations. Pg. 21.

[57] Ibid., pg. 21.

[58] Impact of the Residential School. Williams Lake, B.C. : Cariboo Tribal Council, c1991., 1993. Pg. 33.

[59] Karen Chaboyer. Canadian Museum for Human Rights. “Residential Schools.” YouTube video,

1:57. March 24, 2011.

[60] Breaking the Silence: An Interpretive Study of Residential School Impact and Healing as

Illustrated by the Stories of First Nation Individuals. 1994. Assembly of First Nations. Pg. 3.

[61] Ibid., pg. 3.

[62] Ibid., pg. 34.

[63]Agnes Grant. No End of Grief: Indian Residential Schools in Canada. Winnipeg: Pemmican

Pub., 1996., 1996. Pg. 269.

 

 

 

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Barnes, R., & Josefowitz, N. (2018, July 5). Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Persistent

Impacts on Aboriginal Students’ Psychological Development and Functioning. Canadian

Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne. Advance online publication.

 

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Illustrated by the Stories of First Nation Individuals. 1994. Assembly of First Nations. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat03106a&AN=tru.a511200&site=eds-live.

 

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29:19. https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/2566948097.

 

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video, 18:35. June 2, 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdR9HcmiXLA.

 

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1:57. March 24, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=117&v=LZZ3E_nGjro

 

Chrisjohn, Roland David, Michael Maraun, and Sherri Lynn Young. The Circle Game : Shadows

and Substance in the Indian Residential School Experience in Canada. Theytus Books, 1997. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat03106a&AN=tru.a343749&site=eds-live.

 

Furniss, Elizabeth. Victims of Benevolence : Discipline and Death at the Williams Lake Indian

Residential  School, 1891-1920. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat03106a&AN=tru.a86588&site=eds-live.

 

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Pub., 1996., 1996.

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Haig-Brown, Celia. 2006. Resistance and Renewal : Surviving the Indian Residential School.

Vancouver, BC : Arsenal Pulp Press, 2006, c1988. https://ezproxy.tru.ca/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat03106a&AN=tru.a792930&site=eds-live.

 

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https://ezproxy.tru.ca/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat03106a&AN=tru.a73940&site=eds-live.

 

Jack, Agnes S. 2006. Behind Closed Doors : Stories from the Kamloops Indian Residential

School. Kamloops, B.C. : Secwepemc Cultural Education Society, c2006. https://ezproxy.tru.ca/login?url=https://search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.tru.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat03106a&AN=tru.a453401&site=eds-live.

 

Miller, J.R. “Residential Schools in Canada”.  In The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada.

Article published October 10, 2012; last modified September 21, 2018.

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I included my research paper into my portfolio as it is the largest part of my research project. It shows my argument as to how segregation and discrimination determined the childhood and education of the Indigenous race.